Fluoride Is An Essential Trace Mineral

Fluoride is an essential trace mineral in the human body and is pervasive in about every aspect of our world:

http://www.fluoridealert.org/f-sources.htm.

No matter what type we ingest or absorb, it all leads to body burden and can be toxic. Eventhough fluoride is essential for bones and teeth to grow and remain healthy, only topical applications have been shown to fight tooth decay (see below).

There are different kinds of fluoride. The kind in water is a waste product from fertilizer plants, hydrofluorosilic fluoride:

http://fluoridealert.org/phosphate/overview.htm.

See below for info on the water fluoridation scam and what happens when we get too much fluoride. Here is an excerpt:

“Hydrofluorosilic acid does not occur in nature,” said Connett. “Naturally occurring fluoride has calcium that combines with the fluoride. It’s pure fluoride, not this waste. You wouldn’t use industrial grade to put fluoride into toothpaste. Why should you put it into water? The only answer you get is because it’s cheap,” Connett said.

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Trace minerals are present (and required) in very small amounts in the body. An understanding of the important roles and requirements of trace minerals in the human body is fairly recent, and research is still ongoing. The most important trace minerals are iron, zinc, copper, chromium, fluoride, iodine, selenium, manganese, and molybdenum. Some others, such as arsenic, boron, cobalt, nickel, silicon, and vanadium, are recognized as essential for some animals, while others, such as barium, bromine, cadmium, gold, silver, and aluminum, are found in the body, though little is known about their role in health.

Functions.

Trace minerals have specific biological functions. They are essential in the absorption and utilization of many nutrients and aid enzymes and hormones in activities that are vital to life. Iron plays a major role in oxygen transport and storage and is a component of hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle cells. Cellular energy production requires many trace minerals, including iron, copper, and zinc, which act as enzyme cofactors in the synthesis of many proteins, hormones, neurotransmitters, and genetic material.

Iron and zinc support immune function, while chromium and zinc aid insulin action. Zinc is also essential for many other bodily functions, such as growth, development of sexual organs, and reproduction. Zinc, copper and selenium prevent oxidative damage to cells. Fluoride stabilizes bone mineral and hardens tooth enamel, thus increasing resistance to tooth decay. Iodine is essential for normal thyroid function, which is critical for many aspects of growth and development, particularly brain development. Thus, trace minerals contribute to physical growth and mental development.

Role in disease prevention and treatment.

In addition to clinical deficiency diseases such as anemia and goiter, research indicates that trace minerals play a role in the development, prevention, and treatment of chronic diseases. A marginal status of several trace minerals has been found to be associated with infectious diseases, disorders of the stomach, intestine, bone, heart, and liver, and cancer, although further research is necessary in many cases to understand the effect of supplementation. Iron, zinc, copper, and selenium have been associated with immune response conditions. Copper, chromium and selenium have been linked to the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Excess iron in the body, on the other hand, can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, liver and colorectal cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. Chromium supplementation has been found to be beneficial in many studies of impaired glucose tolerance, a metabolic state between normal glucose regulation and diabetes. Fluoride has been known to prevent dental caries and osteoporosis, while potassium iodide supplements taken immediately before or after exposure to radiation can decrease the risk of radiation-induced thyroid cancer.

Deficiency.

With the exception of iron, dietary deficiencies are rare in the United States and other developed nations. However, malnutrition in developing countries increases the risk for trace-mineral deficiencies among children and other vulnerable groups. In overzealous supplement users, interactions among nutrients can inhibit absorption of some minerals leading to deficiencies. Patients on intravenous feedings without mineral supplements are at risk of developing deficiencies as well.

Although severe deficiencies of better-understood trace minerals are easy to recognize, diagnosis is difficult for less-understood minerals and for mild deficiencies. Even mild deficiencies of trace minerals however, can result in poor growth and development in children.

Iron deficiency is the most common nutrient deficiency worldwide, including in the United States. Iron-deficiency anemia affects hundreds of millions of people, with highest prevalence in developing countries. Infants, young children, adolescents, and pregnant and lactating women are especially vulnerable due to their high demand for iron. Menstruating women are also vulnerable due to blood loss. Vegetarians are another vulnerable group, as iron from plant foods is less bioavailable than that from animal sources.

Zinc deficiency, marked by severe growth retardation and arrested sexual development, was first reported in children and adolescent boys in Egypt, Iran, and Turkey. Diets in Middle Eastern countries are typically high in fiber and phytates, which inhibit zinc absorption. Mild zinc deficiency has been found in vulnerable groups in the United States. Copper deficiency is rare, but can be caused by excess zinc from supplementation.

Deficiencies of fluoride, iodine, and selenium mainly occur due to a low mineral content in either the water or soil in some areas of the world. Fluoride deficiency is marked by a high prevalence of dental caries and is common in geographic regions with low water-fluoride concentration, which has led to the fluoridation of water in the United States and many other parts of the world. Goiter and cretinism (a condition in which body growth and mental development are stunted) have been eliminated by iodization of salt in the United States, but still occur in parts of the world where salt manufacture and distribution are not regulated. Selenium deficiency due to low levels of the mineral in soil is found in northeast China, and it has been associated with Keshan disease, a heart disorder prevalent among people of that area.

Toxicity.

Trace minerals can be toxic at higher intakes, especially for those minerals whose absorption is not regulated in the body (e.g., selenium and iodine). Thus, it is important not to habitually exceed the recommended intake levels. Although toxicity from dietary sources is unlikely, certain genetic disorders can make people vulnerable to overloads from food or supplements. One such disorder, hereditary hemochromatosis, is characterized by iron deposition in the liver and other tissues due to increased intestinal iron absorption over many years.

Chronic exposure to trace minerals through cooking or storage containers can result in overloads of iron, zinc, and copper. Fluorosis, a discoloration of the teeth, has been reported in regions where the natural content of fluoride in drinking water is high. Inhalation of manganese dust over long periods of time has been found to cause brain damage among miners and steelworkers in many parts of the world.

In summary, minerals, both major and trace, play vital roles in human health, and care must be taken to obtain adequate intakes from a wide variety of whole foods. The most common result of deficiencies is poor growth and development in children. Minerals interact with each other and with other nutrients, and caution is required when using supplements, as excess intake of one mineral can lead to the deficiency of another nutrient.

http://www.faqs.org/nutrition/Met-Obe/Minerals.html

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While arsenic is toxic and carcinogenic, fluoride is an essential element for development and protection of teeth and bones.

http://www.ifpri.org/2020/focus/focus09/focus09_04.htm

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Dietary Mineral are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen which are ubiquitous in organic molecules. They can be either bulk minerals (required in relatively large amounts) or trace minerals (required only in very small amounts).

Trace Minerals

The most important trace mineral elements....

• Chromium
• Cobalt
• Copper
• Fluorine
• Iodine
• Iron
• Manganese
• Molybdenum
• Selenium
• Zinc

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_mineral

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As soils decline in fertility and crop or animal yields increase, higher levels of trace elements may be required in animal diets. Molybdenum, nickel, fluorine, vanadium, tin and silicon are some of the trace mineral elements that may become deficient in animal diets in the future. One by one, they may be added to the list of seven trace mineral elements currently being supplemented in animal diets (iodine, copper, iron, cobalt, zinc, manganese and selenium).

When using highly purified or specialized diets, several elements have been shown to be essential. For example, molybdenum is an important part of the enzyme, xanthine oxidase. Fluoride prevents dental caries, may be helpful in osteoporosis, and is needed for growth, and anemia prevention. Nickel is needed for normal reproduction. Silicon is required for growth and proper bone development. Growth rate is decreased with a deficiency of tin or vanadium. Reduced wing and tail feather growth in chicks occurred with vanadium deficiency. Eventually, deficiencies of these trace elements may occur under specialized conditions with practical diets. Already it is known that supplementation of molybdenum, in a few areas where forages contain very low levels of molybdenum, would be helpful in counteracting copper toxicity in sheep.

http://www.saltinstitute.org/25.html

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While the focus in health supplements is often on vitamins, many of the trace minerals are necessary in order for our bodies to actually absorb vitamins and other nutrients properly. Various trace minerals serve as catalysts or necessary ingredients in electrical or chemical reactions in the body. These trace minerals include iron, manganese, copper, iodine, zinc, cobalt, fluoride, and selenium. Despite the minute amounts needed by the body, their lack can cause serious health conditions. A deficiency of iron which helps transport oxygen in the blood, for instance, causes anemia, and low levels of zinc impairs the function of the immune system.

http://www.nutritionalsupplementscenter.com/info/Minerals/traceminerals.html

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Since the trace minerals group includes over 50 chemical elements, scientists further subdivide this group into three categories, to separate the minerals that are important in health from others that are in our bodies just because they are in the environment and probably have no special role. The first category is the essential trace minerals. These are minerals that are required in the diet for full health, and when the intake is insufficient, symptoms of deficiency will arise. They include nine known to be essential: zinc, copper, selenium, chromium,manganese, molybdenum, iodine, fluoride and cobalt. About 10 more minerals are thought to be essential but the full proof is not yet in; these are arsenic, boron, bromium, cadmium, lead, lithium, nickel, silicon, tin, and vanadium.

http://www.brightbeginnings.com/customer/faqs.asp?theme=57&topic=Trace-Minera...

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Why do I need fluoride?

Fluoride, a trace mineral found in most tap water, is best known as a dental cavity fighter. It also helps to form strong bones by bonding with calcium and phosphorus. Your baby needs fluoride when the teeth begin to form at around ten weeks; permanent molars and incisors begin developing in the second and third trimesters.

http://www.babycenter.com/refcap/pregnancy/pregnancynutrition/674.html#0

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FLUORIDE

Researcher Doris Jones has unearthed startling new evidence demonstrating that fluoride interferes with enzyme systems, damaging many organ systems of the body. The fluoride issue, a perennial hot potato, is heating up once again. In Britain, the government has recently announced its intention to fluoridate the water of deprived inner city areas, supposedly to improve the dental health of children living there. Later, water fluoridation may be introduced nationwide. A White Paper outlining the government's plans is scheduled for this spring. The government and the dental profession have convinced the public that fluoridated water offers nothing but benefits that there is overwhelming evidence that it prevents tooth decay and contributes to the strength of bones. There is tacit admission in the pro fluoride camp that fluoride can also cause harm, but only at high levels: more than 2 ppm in water may cause mottled teeth and over 8 ppm may lead to bone disorders and degenerative changes in the vital organs. A few lone voices have countered the prevailing view, with published evidence that fluoride can have devastating effects, causing mottled teeth and osteoporosis at very low levels. While much has been written about the effects of too much fluoride on teeth and bones, little is known about the effects of fluoride on the rest of the body. But new evidence has emerged demonstrating that it can have devastating effects on just about every organ in the body, and may even be partly responsible for behavioural problems like hyperactivity and many puzzling illnesses like ME. Like mercury, fluoride isn't exactly an obvious choice for dental health as it is a poison more poisonous than lead and only slightly less poisonous than arsenic (Clin Toxicol Commerc Prod, 1984; 11: 4, 112, 129, 138). It's been used as a pesticide, and it's a component in fungicides, rodenticides, anaesthetics and many drugs. The fluoride used in toothpaste, mouth rinses and dental gels is usually sodium fluoride, a waste product from the aluminium industry. Fluoride added to our water supply is hydrofluorosilic acid or sometimes silicofluoride waste products of fertiliser and glass industries. The late US fluoride critic George L Waldbott discovered that, besides teeth and bones, fluoride can damage soft tissue. According to his research, the small fluorine ion with a high charge density can penetrate every cell of the body and combine with other ions (GL Waldbott et al, Fluoride: The Great Dilemma, Lawrence, Kansas: Corenado Press, 1978: 148-74). It interferes with the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus and the function of the parathyroid glands. It has a strong affinity to calcium, but will also readily combine with magnesium and manganese ions and so can interfere with many enzyme systems that require these minerals. The interruption of these enzyme systems, in turn, may disturb carbohydrate metabolism, bone formation and muscle function. Indeed, every vital function in the body depends on enzymes; because fluoride easily reaches every organ, many diverse toxic symptoms can result. Fluoride and enzymes Enzyme systems react to fluoride in different ways; some are activated, others are inhibited. Lipase (essential for the digestion of fat) and phosphatases (needed to breakdown phosphates) are very sensitive to fluoride. In patients with skeletal fluorosis, succinate dehydrogenase activity is inhibited. In chronic fluoride poisoning, this diminished enzyme activity accounts for muscular weakness and even muscle wasting. Human salivary acid phosphatase is diminished by half when exposed to 3.8 ppm of fluoride. The blood enzyme cholinesterase is inhibited by 61 per cent on exposure to 0.95 ppm fluoride an amount within recommended levels adversely affecting functions of the nervous system (PA Smith, ed, Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1970: 48-97).

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http://www.healthy.net/scr/Article.asp?Id=4399

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Palatka Daily News
Friday 24 February 2006

Opponent says nonfluoridated cities have safer drinking water
By Anthony DeMatteo

(See original article)

A leading opponent of the fluoridation of public drinking water supplies said a group of “butchers, bakers and candlestick makers” is promoting fluoridation while the FDA, the only government agency permitted to approve medicines as safe for human consumption, has never approved fluoride as safe or effective for internal use.

“This is a business that brings in hundreds of millions of dollars a year,” according to Dr. Paul Connett, a professor of chemistry at St. Lawrence University in Canton, N.Y.

Fluoridation — the adding of fluoride to drinking water — often in the form of the environmental toxin hydrofluorosilic acid — has been practiced by municipalities since the 1940s. And for years, a national, if largely unknown debate, has continued regarding its use.

“Hydrofluorosilic acid does not occur in nature,” said Connett. “Naturally occurring fluoride has calcium that combines with the fluoride. It’s pure fluoride, not this waste. You wouldn’t use industrial grade to put fluoride into toothpaste. Why should you put it into water? The only answer you get is because it’s cheap,” Connett said.

Connett said fluoride in toothpaste is a pharmaceutical grade of sodium fluoride and much safer than the toxic waste collected from phosphate plants in the form of hydrofluorosilic acid.

According to opponents of fluoridation, the water in nonfluoridated cities is safer for humans to ingest.

A 1999 report by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control states that the ingestion of fluoride is minimally effective in fighting tooth decay. According to the report, “Laboratory and epidemiologic research suggests that fluoride prevents dental caries (tooth decay) predominately after eruption of the tooth into the mouth, and its actions primarily are topical for both adults and children.”

Connett agrees.

“It makes as much sense to ingest fluoride to prevent tooth decay as it does to swallow sun block to protect you from the sun’s rays,” Connett said.

A study by the National Institute of Dental Research found 66 percent of children in America have some form of dental fluorosis, a spotting or weakening of the teeth caused by exposure to fluoride.

The American Osteopathic Association in Chicago supports fluoridation, according to the association’s media relations specialist Nicole Grady. Grady said there was no one at the organization familiar with a possible correlation of bone cancer and ingesting fluoridated water.

“Nobody here is really an expert on that, nothing specifically,” Grady said. “We just support it as a safe and effective means of fighting tooth decay.”

CDC’S SCALE OF SAFE DAILY DOSES

According to data from the CDC, safe daily doses of fluoride for children are: 0-6 months old or 16 pounds, 0.01 milligrams per day; 6-12 months or 20 pounds, 0.5 mg/day; 1-3 years or 29 pounds, 0.7; 4-8 years or 48 pounds, 1.1 mg/day. However, CDC also cites a survey involving four U.S. cities with fluoride concentrations in water ranging from 0.37 to1.04 ppm, which found infants aged 6 months were ingesting 0.21 to 0.54 milligrams of fluoride per day.

Dr. Mary Ann LoFrumento, a pediatrician and author of the Simply Parenting Childcare series of books, said there are arguments on both sides of the fluoridation issue.

“There are scientists on both sides with concerns,” LoFrumento said. “There is no doubt fluoride lessens dental decay. But you don’t have to get it in the water. Many people are concerned that with the different sources of fluoride such as toothpaste, supplemental vitamins and other sources, that it might be too much.”

Some opponents say fluoridation is a means for private chemical companies to dispose of pollutants EPA regulations forbid disposing — poisoning Americans a little at a time at a profit.

“They polluted the air with this stuff for hundreds of years, poisoning cattle and the environment before they thought of putting it in drinking water,” Connett said.

Connett claims fluoridation still exists for several reasons.

“Government does not want to lose face, having told you how wonderful this stuff is, they won’t want to turn around and tell you it’s not a good idea. And it’s the prospect of litigation. If and when it starts, the lawsuits are going to make tobacco look like a children’s picnic,” he said.

LoFrumento said there is no government conspiracy to add poison to drinking water, but parents should make sure their children are not being overexposed to fluoride.

“There really is no need for massive fluoridation in water supplies in today’s society, though there is a belief that it might be a safer delivery than getting it in supplements.”

in favor of fluoridation

Many health and safety agencies and officials support fluoridation, including the American Dental Association, the CDC and the U.S. Surgeon General Richard H. Carmona.

According to information on the ADA Web site, ingesting fluoride inhibits dental decay by controlling the activity of carcinogenic bacteria and lessens the demineralization of healthy enamel while aiding the recovery of demineralized enamel.

The site outlines decreases in tooth decay of up to 60 percent in cities with fluoridated water supplies.

The organization states that diluting fluoride in drinking water within the recommend range of .07 to 1.2 ppm makes it safe for human consumption.

Fred L. Peterson at the ADA cited information on the agency’s Web site outlining benefits of adding fluoride to drinking water. It states that more than 60 years of studies have shown fluoridation to be a safe and effective method of inhibiting tooth decay.

LoFrumento said she was not aware of specific differences between sodium fluoride and hydrofluorosilic acid, or of the use of the acid to fluoridate water supplies. She said one theory behind floridation is to get fluoride to children in poor families, improving their dental health.

It is a theory on which Connet has another take.

“It is the poor families who can’t escape this stuff,” he said. “They can’t afford bottled water. They can’t afford reverse osmosis systems, so they are stuck drinking this toxin they never asked to be medicated with.”

http://fluoridealert.org/news/2541.html

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Fluoride & Tooth Decay: Topical Vs. Systemic Effects

When water fluoridation first began in the 1940s, dentists believed that fluoride's main benefit came from ingesting fluoride during the early years of life. This belief held sway for over 40 years.

However, it is now acknowledged by dental researchers to be incorrect. According to the Centers for Disease Control, fluoride's predominant effect is TOPICAL (direct contact with teeth) and not systemic (from ingestion).

Hence, there is no need to ingest fluoride to derive it's purported benefit for teeth.

As stated by the US Centers for Disease Control:

"[L]aboratory and epidemiologic research suggests that fluoride prevents dental caries predominately after eruption of the tooth into the mouth, and its actions primarily are topical for both adults and children" (CDC, 1999, MMWR 48: 933-940).

Dr Arvid Carlsson Discusses Fluoride's Topical/Systemic Effects

CONNETT: You mentioned that fluoride's benefits come from the local, or topical, effect. Could you just discuss a little more what you see as the significance of that fact? Why is it important that fluoride's benefit is topical, and not from ingestion?

CARLSSON: Well, in pharmacology, if the effect is local, it's of course absolutely awkward to use it in any other way than as a local treatment. I mean this is obvious. You have the teeth there, they're available for you, why drink the stuff?... I see no reason at all for giving it in any other way than locally -- topically, if you wish.

To view video clip of this interview, click here
To read more excepts of the interview, click here

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“The results of more recent epidemiological and laboratory studies can be summarized by stating that posteruptive (topical) application of fluoride plays the dominant role in caries prevention."
SOURCE: Hellwig E, Lennon AM. (2004). Systemic versus topical fluoride. Caries Research 38: 258-62.

"When it was thought that fluoride had to be present during tooth mineralisation to 'improve' the biological apatite and the 'caries resistance' of the teeth, systemic fluoride administration was necessary for maximum benefit. Caries reduction therefore had to be balanced against increasing dental fluorosis. The 'caries resistance' concept was shown to be erroneous 25 years ago, but the new paradigm is not yet fully adopted in public health dentistry, so we still await real breakthroughs in more effective use of fluorides for caries prevention."
SOURCE: Fejerskov O. (2004). Changing paradigms in concepts on dental caries: consequences for oral health care. Caries Research 38: 182-91.

“Current evidence strongly suggests that fluorides work primarily by topical means through direct action on the teeth and dental plaque. Thus ingestion of fluoride is not essential for caries prevention."
SOURCE: Warren JJ, Levy SM. (2003). Current and future role of fluoride in nutrition. Dental Clinics of North America 47: 225-43.

"[T]he majority of benefit from fluoride is now believed to be from its topical, rather than systemic, effects."
SOURCE: Brothwell D, Limeback H. (2003). Breastfeeding is protective against dental fluorosis in a nonfluoridated rural area of Ontario, Canada. Journal of Human Lactation 19: 386-90.

"For a long time, the systemic effect of fluoride was regarded to be most important, resulting in recommendations to use fluoride supplements such as tablets or drops. However, there is increasing evidence that the local effect of fluoride at the surface of the erupted teeth is by far more important."
SOURCE: Zimmer S, et al. (2003). Recommendations for the Use of Fluoride in Caries Prevention. Oral Health & Preventive Dentistry 1: 45-51.

"By 1981, it was therefore possible to propose a paradigm shift concerning the cariostatic mechanisms of fluorides in which it was argued that the predominant, if not the entire, explanation for how fluoride controls caries lesion development lies in its topical effect on de- and remineralization processes taking place at the interface between the tooth surface and the oral fluids. This concept has gained wide acceptance... With today's knowledge about the mechanisms of fluoride action, it is important to appreciate that, as fluoride exerts its predominant effect... at the tooth/oral fluid interface, it is possible for maximum caries protection to be obtained without the ingestion of fluorides to any significant extent."
SOURCE: Aoba T, Fejerskov O. (2002). Critical Review of Oral Biology and Medicine 13: 155-70.

"[F]luoride's predominant effect is posteruptive and topical."
SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2001). Recommendations for Using Fluoride to Prevent and Control Dental Caries in the United States. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 50(RR14): 1-42.

"The prevalence of dental caries in a population is not inversely related to the concentration of fluoride in enamel, and a higher concentration of enamel fluoride is not necessarily more efficacious in preventing dental caries."
SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2001). Recommendations for Using Fluoride to Prevent and Control Dental Caries in the United States. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 50(RR14): 1-42.

"Fluoride incorporated during tooth development is insufficient to play a significant role in caries protection."
SOURCE: Featherstone, JDB. (2000). The Science and Practice of Caries Prevention. Journal of the American Dental Association 131: 887-899.

"Current evidence suggests that the predominant beneficial effects of fluoride occur locally at the tooth surface, and that systemic (preeruptive) effects are of much less importance."
SOURCE: Formon, SJ; Ekstrand, J; Ziegler, E. (2000). Fluoride Intake and Prevalence of Dental Fluorosis: Trends in Fluoride Intake with Special Attention to Infants. Journal of Public Health Dentistry 60: 131-9.

"Fluoride supplementation regimens suffer from several shortcomings, the first of which may be their derivation from a time when the major effect of fluoride was thought to be systemic. Although evidence that fluoride exerts its effects mainly through topical contact is great, supplementation schemes still focus on the ingestion of fluoride."
SOURCE: Adair SM. (1999). Overview of the history and current status of fluoride supplementation schedules. Journal of Public Health Dentistry 1999 59:252-8.

"The case is essentially a risk-benefit issue - fluoride has little preeruptive impact on caries prevention, but presents a clear risk of fluorosis."
SOURCE: Burt BA. (1999). The case for eliminating the use of dietary fluoride supplements for young children. Journal of Public Health Dentistry 59: 260-274.

"Until recently the major caries-inhibitory effect of fluoride was thought to be due to its incorporation in tooth mineral during the development of the tooth prior to eruption...There is now overwhelming evidence that the primary caries-preventive mechanisms of action of fluoride are post-eruptive through 'topical' effects for both children and adults."
SOURCE: Featherstone JDB. (1999) Prevention and Reversal of Dental Caries: Role of Low Level Fluoride. Community Dentistry & Oral Epidemiology 27: 31-40.

"[L]aboratory and epidemiologic research suggests that fluoride prevents dental caries predominately after eruption of the tooth into the mouth, and its actions primarily are topical for both adults and children."
SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1999). Achievements in Public Health, 1900-1999: Fluoridation of Drinking Water to Prevent Dental Caries. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48: 933-940.

"[R]esearchers are discovering that the topical effects of fluoride are likely to mask any benefits that ingesting fluoride might have... This has obvious implications for the use of systemic fluorides to prevent dental caries."
SOURCE: Limeback, H. (1999). A re-examination of the pre-eruptive and post-eruptive mechanism of the anti-caries effects of fluoride: is there any caries benefit from swallowing fluoride? Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology 27: 62-71.

"Although it was initially thought that the main mode of action of fluoride was through its incorporation into enamel, thereby reducing the solubility of the enamel, this pre-eruptive effect is likely to be minor. The evidence for a post-eruptive effect, particularly its role in inhibiting demineralization and promoting remineralization, is much stronger."
SOURCE: Locker D. (1999). Benefits and Risks of Water Fluoridation. An Update of the 1996 Federal-Provincial Sub-committee Report. Prepared for Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care.

"Recent research on the mechanism of action of fluoride in reducing the prevalence of dental caries (tooth decay) in humans shows that fluoride acts topically (at the surface of the teeth) and that there is neglible benefit in ingesting it."
SOURCE: Diesendorf, M. et al. (1997). New Evidence on Fluoridation. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 21 : 187-190.

"On the basis of the belief that an adequate intake of fluoride in early life is protective against caries in later life, fluoride supplements are recommended for infants and children living in areas in which the fluoride content of the drinking water is low. However, critical reviews of the evidence have led to the conclusion that the effect of fluoride in decreasing the prevalence and severity of dental caries is not primarily systemic but exerted locally within the oral cavity. Because fluoride supplements are quickly cleared from the mouth, the possibility must be considered that they may contribute to enamel fluorosis, which is unquestionably a systemic effect, while providing relatively little protection against dental caries."
SOURCE: Ekstrand J, et al. (1994). Fluoride pharmacokinetics in infancy. Pediatric Research 35:157–163.

"It is now well-accepted that the primary anti-caries activity of fluoride is via topical action."
SOURCE: Zero DT, et al. (1992). Fluoride concentrations in plaque, whole saliva, and ductal saliva after application of home-use topical fluorides. Journal of Dental Research 71:1768-1775.

"I have argued in this paper that desirable effects of systemically administered fluoride are quire minimal or perhaps even absent altogether."
SOURCE: Leverett DH. (1991). Appropriate uses of systemic fluoride: considerations for the '90s. Journal of Public Health Dentistry 51: 42-7.

"It, therefore, becomes evident that a shift in thinking has taken place in terms of the mode of action of fluorides. Greater emphasis is now placed on topical rather than on systemic mechanisms..."
SOURCE: Wefel JS. (1990). Effects of fluoride on caries development and progression using intra-oral models. Journal of Dental Research 69(Spec No):626-33;

"[E]vidence has continued to accumulate to support the hypothesis that the anti-caries mechanism of fluoride is mainly a topical one."
SOURCE: Carlos JP. (1983) Comments on Fluoride. Journal of Pedodontics Winter. 135-136.

"Until recently most caries preventive programs using fluoride have aimed at incorporating fluoride into the dental enamel. The relative role of enamel fluoride in caries prevention is now increasingly questioned, and based on rat experiments and reevaluation of human clinical data, it appears to be of minor importance... [A]ny method which places particular emphasis on incorporation of bound fluoride into dental enamel during formation may be of limited importance."
SOURCE: Fejerskov O, Thylstrup A, Larsen MJ. (1981). Rational Use of Fluorides in Caries Prevention: A Concept based on Possible Cariostatic Mechanisms. Acta Odontologica Scandinavica 39: 241-249.

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Elements essential to the human body

[Extracts from "Introduction to the Chemistry of Life" by Berlow, Burton and Routh, Saunders College Publishing, New York, 1974.]

Hydrogen No 1 Group 1
Most obviously as part of the water molecule, H₂O, hydrogen is also part of many other essential simple molecules and complex organic molecules including DNA.

Carbon No 6 Group 4
Carbon dioxide, CO₂, is produced by animals and taken in by plants. The plants then use the CO_2, with water, H₂O, and with the help of sunlight and nutrients from the soil, to make the gigantic number of organic compounds we find in the plant world. Carbon is the fundamental atom in organic molecules including DNA.

Nitrogen No 7 Group 5
One of the most important elements for life. The simplest molecule NH₃, ammonia, is important in our internal chemistry. Often found as part of organic molecules is the NH₂ group, typical of an amine and found in amino acids and proteins and in DNA..

Oxygen No 8 Group 6
In its role as the central atom in water, H₂O, oxygen provides most of your body weight. Oxygen-containing ions such as nitrates (NO₃), carbonates (CO₃) and phosphates (PO₄) combine with ions such as Ca₂ and Al₃. We breathe oxygen molecules (O₂) from the air and transport these molecules in the blood to cells of the body. Oxygen is one of the five elements in DNA.
H₂S, with sulphur from the same oxygen group 6, is the 'rotten egg' poisonous gas. H₂Te, with tellurium from the same group 6, is the worst smelling inorganic compound known.

Fluorine No 9 Group 7
Too much fluorine can be as injurious as too little. If the fluoride ion (F^-) level in water is about 1 part per million, tooth decay in children is cut in half compared with water deficient in fluoride.

Sodium No 11 Group 1
All animals and plants contain large amounts of sodium and potassium cations dissolved in water. Both ions are often accompanied by the chloride ion, since there must be an equal number of positive and negative charges in any small region. The sodium ion is mostly found in the fluids surrounding the cell. A large number of body processes depend not only on the presence of Na and K ions, but on the proper balance being maintained between them.

Magnesium No 12 Group 2
Magnesium ions are essential to the body, especially for nerve impulses and muscle contraction. There are many enzymes that include magnesium as part of their structure.

Silicon No 14 Group 4
Silicon has been shown to be an essential element in the chick and rat, and thus may have a role for humans.

Phosphorus No 15 Group 5
Very important in life. Phosphates are involved in DNA and in energy transfer processes.

Sulphur No 16 Group 6
Is found in protein molecules, forming part of the 'bridge' structure which holds protein molecules together. H₂O is essential water but H₂S, from the same group 6, is the 'rotten egg' poisonous gas.

Chlorine No 17 Group 7
The chloride ion (Cl^-) is the major anion of the human body, forming salts. Stomach acid is a solution of hydrochloric acid HCl. Chlorine is used to kill bacteria in drinking water.

Potassium No 19 Group 1
All animals and plants contain large amounts of sodium and potassium cations dissolved in water. Both ions are often accompanied by the chloride ion, since there must be an equal number of positive and negative charges in any small region. The potassium ion is generally found inside the cell. A large number of body processes depend not only on the presence of Na and K ions, but on the proper balance being maintained between them.

Calcium No 20 Group 2
Calcium ions make up about 2% of our body weight, almost entirely in the bones and teeth. A proper level of calcium in the body is needed for nerve response, muscle contraction (include heart pumping) and even the maintenance of correct body temperature. Ca ions must also be present for the clotting of blood.

Vanadium No 23 1st Transition Series
Required by some animals other than humans and there is no clear evidence of how it may work in the human body.

Chromium No 24 1st Transition Series
Known since 1959 to serve a variety of roles in the human body.

Manganese No 25 1st Transition Series
Has many essential functions in every cell. A manganese deficiency is almost impossible to have, and thus we are not absolutely sure what symptoms would result.

Iron No 26 1st Transition Series
Perhaps the most essential transition metal in the body where an iron-containing molecule called haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. Small amounts of iron are found in every tissue cell in molecules that use oxygen. About 3% of the iron in the body is in muscle cells in a molecule called myoglobin. Both ferrous (Fe²⁺) and ferric (Fe³⁺) ions are involved in energy-producing processes.

Cobalt No 27 1st Transition Series
Cobalt is an essential part of one molecule, vitamin B₁₂. Like iron in haemoglobin, cobalt serves to hold the large vitamin molecule together and to make it function properly.

Nickel No 28 1st Transition Series
Required by some animals other than humans and there is no clear evidence of how it may work in the human body.

Copper No 29 1st Transition Series
Required for a variety of roles in the body, several of which are connected to the use of iron. Deficiency of copper will result in weak blood vessels and bones as well as nerve damage.

Zinc No 30 1st Transition Series
Zinc is essential for normal growth of genital organs, wound healing, and general growth of all tissues. It is also associated with the hormone insulin, which is used to treat diabetes. Oysters are an unusually rich source of zinc.

Selenium No 34 Group 6
As important a nutrient as zinc, iron and copper. However too much selenium is harmful - more toxic than mercury or lead.

Molybdenum No 42 2nd Transition Series
Molybdenum is part of several important enzymes. It is not certain if a deficiency is possible or what symptoms would result.

Tin No 50 Group 4
Tin seems to be required by rats and thus possibly by humans.

Iodine No 53 Group 7
Like chlorine, but unlike bromine, iodine is essential to life. It is part of the thyroxine molecule, a thyroid gland hormone that controls growth. Seafood contains enough iodide to supply the body's needs.

[Extracts from "Introduction to the Chemistry of Life" by Berlow, Burton and Routh, Saunders College Publishing, New York, 1974.]

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Torrie

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